Paul Sixpence is the Team Leader at Centre Stage Media Arts (CSMA) and a Research Fellow with the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation. He can be contacted on psixpence@gmail.com
Abstract
From contemporary mega-cities of socio-economic and political prosperity down to acephalous, remote, obscure traditional and cultural primordial societies, contemporary humanity desires green security.
Zimbabwe’s contribution to climate change is driven by carbon emissions from coal and thermal electricity production, vehicles and steam locomotives, farm and industrial processes, and poor solid waste management systems. Effects of global warming in Zimbabwe are infrastructural destruction due to floods, recurrent droughts, shifting of green zones and altering agricultural seasons. Climate change has direct and indirect effects that are affecting public health, water supply, land-use, and food security. Climate change threatens human life and claim to basic human rights. Industrialisation is important for global economic transformation and satisfying basic human needs, however, 21st century industrialisation must be driven by investment in alternative sources of energy and green technology.
Arguments posited are underpinned by empirical evidence that; climate change will affect, at a much greater level, the populations that are least able to deal with it. In the developing world, it will affect nations least able to respond to these stresses and threats. The essay delves into possible and current practical solutions that are being carried out by youths in Zimbabwe to address climate change.
Active engagement in climate change efforts by youths in the developing world epitomises a departure from the victim mentality. Youths have the energy, talents and ideas to reverse climate change. Youth initiatives and ideas must be implemented as a matter of urgency.
1. Introduction
Contemporary debate about the world today revolves around change,
It is change that promises to bring hope,
It is change that promises to guarantee human security,
It is change that promises economic transformation of the global economy,
However, at the same time it is change that threatens the world… to be precise, climate change!
Industrialisation and mass consumption are key to sustaining the world economy; however industrialisation today must be premised upon alternative sources of energy and investment in green technology. In reducing carbon emissions the concept of urbanisation must not be sacrificed. Cities offer opportunities for better access to health care, education, employment and personal development to citizens of the global south.
Unusual weather patterns threaten to construct a new paradigm in the understanding of weather phenomena. Zimbabwe now experiences summer seasons characterised by torrential rains within a short period of time and a largely dry summer season. Wet summer seasons have become infrequent and when they do occur they are characterised by abnormal rains.
Climate change impacts in Zimbabwe are related to food security, water supply, land-use, infrastructure and economic growth and development. The geographical location of Zimbabwe in the tropics makes it more vulnerable to shifting rainfall and agricultural patterns, water resources, vegetation and forestry resources. Climate change poses threats related to public health. Diseases such as dengue fever are moving into high altitude areas and Zimbabwe has become vulnerable.
The challenge that befalls young people today is about ideas. As young people today, we have an obligation towards international society. The obligation is based upon the realisation that we are the future, and the future has to be built today. The future can only be built and guaranteed by a robust and creative global youth. Youths are leaders and dealers; they lead in ideas and deal in ideas. This world is built on ideas and shall continue to be built on ideas.
Youths in the global south desire economic, environmental and political change. It is change that will usher in a new dispensation of economic transformation. However, in our desire for economic transformation we face climate change. In that respect, the word change has adopted an ambiguous definition to global youth, in that, it represents hope for global renewal and fear in terms of climate change.
As young people we have the potential and willpower to contribute towards the transformation of the social matrix of society. Youth leaders, like I, are part of the 21st century young African generational thinkers who seek to influence and lead social change processes rather than being targets of them.
Using an alternative and concerned voice, innovativeness and creative ingenuity young green and social entrepreneurs across the hemispherical divide must commit time to change processes, arising through a holistic approach that engages all aspects of culture at the grassroots to ensure acceptance and therefore sustainable green development.
2. Agriculture: Food Security under Threat
“If Zimbabwe is to [become] the breadbasket of the SADC [Southern Africa Development Community] Region and meet the growing demands for food locally and regionally, the sustainable growth of the agricultural production sector should be given the highest priority in all national development programs [and such programmes must involve youths].” Matarira et al (2005)
Zimbabwe’s economy is largely agro-based. Agriculture contributes 16 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy supporting 80 percent of the population, with the rest of the economy being linked to agriculture through the manufacturing sector. Agriculture provides the bulk of raw materials that are required in manufacturing. In turn, manufacturing contributes about 25 percent of the GDP and employs 17 percent of the total employed labour force.
In Zimbabwe, climate change effects can be looked at from the following points,
· changes in land and water regimes that affect agricultural productivity;
· changes in crop yields;
· rural poverty increases as livelihoods are threatened.
The process of global warming has led to an average increase in temperatures. The increase in temperatures coupled with unpredictable and ever-changing rainfall patterns has led to the elimination of green zones in areas with fertile soils and the creation of new green zones in areas with infertile soils. Food crops are failing to adapt to changes in temperature and rainfall leading to crop failure and poor harvests.
Farmers in Zimbabwe and the world are unable to carry out advance agricultural planning because of altered agriculture seasons. The summer season in Zimbabwe now commences in December instead of October. It is becoming increasingly difficult for farmers to plan dates for planting and to prepare for the agriculture season.
Climate change poses challenges to Zimbabwe and the rest of the global south in terms of national and international food security. African countries that have the capacity to extricate the continent from the food crisis are either locked up in civil strife or are pre-occupied with efforts to stabilise their infant democracies. The global food crisis is an apparent threat to human security. There is need for young people to act globally since we live in a globalised environment. Concerns of young people in Seoul, South Korea are also concerns of young people in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe as far as climate change is concerned. For example in January and February 2009, the world witnessed a devastating outbreak of dengue fever in Santa Cruz, Bolivia and a scorching heatwave in Australia. In that respect, young people in the developed world have as much a bigger role to play in mitigating effects of climate change as youths in the developing world.
Young people need to come together and engage in global green entrepreneurship. Young people can engage in a global transfer of skills, technology and knowledge to mitigate and reverse climate change. Young people in Zimbabwe are a huge untapped skills resource. Youths must establish organisations with a special focus to address environmental issues, improve farming methods and systems and advocate for private and public investment in green technology.
Currently, there are few organisations involved in environmental and agricultural extension services work in Zimbabwe and their activities are low key. This is hampering efforts aimed at improving agricultural systems and environmental preservation. In essence, few people understand the concept of climate change in Zimbabwe and its effects.
To improve food production, youths must initiate and lead the following intervention strategies,
develop and promote a new concept of national and local food self-sufficiency. This strategy must focus on family and local processes of food production to achieve national and household food security and production self-sufficiency.
engage in food production with a view to transform food productivity to increase food supplies and achieve equitable food security
lead advocacy calls for food policy reforms in the context of climate change
agricultural practice management changes, encourage the use of organic fertilisers and short-season variety seeds to ensure fast maturation of crops in a largely unpredictable climate. For example a youth-led farming initiative in Victoria falls, Zimbabwe is using elephant dung to create organic fertilisers.
in areas previously characterised by average to above average rainfall amounts, the dominant agricultural activity has been crop production, more so, maize, which is the staple crop. With climate change these areas may begin to receive below average rainfall and thus it will be unviable to grow maize. In such cases there is need for adaptiveness on the part of the farmer and diversify and, engage in other agricultural activities suitable for low-rainfall receiving areas such as livestock rearing and small grains production that mainly consist of drought resistant crops. The opposite is also true for areas that were once dry.
education and agricultural extensions services shall form the core of this strategy. There is need for young people to reach out to farmers and deliver this information and also enlighten the populace on climate change.
2.1 Agriculture and the Economy
Between 2050 and 2100 it is predicted that temperatures in Zimbabwe will rise by a margin of between 2 degrees Celsius and 4 degrees Celsius and rainfall will decrease by between 10 percent and 21 percent. Mean temperature and rainfall estimates have been predicted using global climate models (GCMs). Further reductions in rainfall and sustained increases in temperature will make farming a non-viable business for Zimbabwean farmers. This has negative consequences for the agro-based economy.
Therefore there is need for private-public partnerships that will develop sound and sustainable policies that will help farmers adapt to these changes and ensure economic transformation.
Private-public partnerships can be further extended to investment in harvesting groundwater and rainwater. Groundwater provides a viable solution to water provision for domestic and agricultural activities in the event of water shortages in both urban and rural areas.
3. Water is Life and Sustains Lives: Climate Change a Real Threat to Human Existance
My hometown, the city of Bulawayo is constantly hit by water shortages due to recurrent droughts. Water shortages have resulted in the paralysis of the public health system and industry. Public institutions such as health centres and schools at times have to suspend operations due to the unavailability of water.
Zimbabwe derives a significant amount of her national electricity requirements from water. Climate change poses greater challenges in this regard as precipitation levels may substantial fall resulting in less water in dams thus a decrease in power generation.
In solving this challenge there is need to construct more dams to ensure maximum water harvesting of rainwater and storage. Water stored in dams can be used to generate power in the future should the need arise. Conserved water can be used to irrigate crops, in seasons were rains are poor.
4. Climate Change Axis of Evil: Infrastructural Destruction, tropical diseases and human mortality
“Cyclone Nargis slammed in Mynmar’s Irrawaddy delta, causing catastrophic destruction and a death toll estimated at over 146 000”
(Sunday Times- South African Edition, 28 December 2008, p15)
Some provinces in Zimbabwe such as Matabeleland North are prone to Malaria. High temperatures and incessant rains during rare and infrequent wet seasons have led to an upsurge in Malaria cases in this district. Malaria cases are now being recorded in high altitude areas in Zimbabwe. Young people must engage in outreach campaigns to raise awareness on the disease and prevention strategies in new malaria prone areas.
Incessant rains within a short period have further strained a badly managed public health system. Zimbabwe suffered a cholera outbreak that was worsened by incessant rains. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) cholera claimed over 3 000 lives and infected over 60 000 people during the 2008/09 summer season.
To improve sanitation, young people in Zimbabwe can build sanitary blair toilets. Blair toilets are a cost effective means of addressing human waste disposal in overcrowded high-density settlements in both formal and informal settlements. Blair toilets are a mitigatory strategy addressing sanitary effects of global climate change.
Scorching temperatures have led to an increase in cases of heat stress and eye cataracts. To address this challenge young people must mobilise resources and engage in acts of socio-medical entrepreneurship.
Floods and torrential rains have left a trail of destruction in their path in Zimbabwe. Cyclone Eline in 2000 destroyed bridges, roads and schools. This has affected the socio-economic systems of Zimbabwe. Youths in urban centres are engaged in social entrepreneurship activities such as repairing pothole-ridden roads. This act by youths in Zimbabwe demonstrates the power of youth civil authority in tackling challenges that beset us today. Young people offer technical expertise and labour to expedite the reconstruction process. Philanthropic groups at educational, religious and social institutions can further extend their activities to include civil protection in cases of natural calamities.
5. The new threat: national and global political instability
"If not handled properly, this [climate change] crisis could result in a cascade of others ... and become a multidimensional problem affecting economic growth, social progress and even political security around the world"
Ban Kin Moon, United Nations Secretary General (http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/apr/21/food.unitednations)
Politics is about hope and fear. Climate change, if not properly handled brings about fear. In Zimbabwe, where the economy is sustained by agriculture, failure in the agriculture sector might spell doom to political stability. A hungry nation is an angry and politically restive nation. Therefore, climate change poses a real threat to national security in Zimbabwe and fuels terrorism internationally.
In solving this crisis one may propose the following;
§ the transformation and broadening of the economic base. Zimbabwe must broaden her economic base to ensure that economic growth and development is not solely based on agriculture. Zimbabwe has a lot of potential in sectors such as mining, tourism and manufaturing.
§ youth must actively participate in leadership transformation and development programmes. Zimbabwe and the developing world must seek to develop and nurture a new generation of leaders and visionary thinkers who shall transform the social, economic, environmental and political landscape.
The years 2007–2008 saw dramatic rises in world food prices, creating a global crisis and causing socio-economic instability and social unrest in both poor and developed nations. Food shortages result in high food prices which inturn lead to violence.Systemic causes for the worldwide increases in food prices continue to be the subject of debate. Initial causes of the late 2006 price spikes included unseasonal droughts in grain-producing nations.
Young people in Zimbabwe and the world must engage in debate and be active participants in the formulation of national and global policies that will aid the economic transformation of Zimbabwe and the world, so that globally we can be in a position to circumvent economic effects posed by global climate change. This challenge is incumbent upon global youth, for example, from the catbird seat of modern Tokyo, members of Japan's shinjirui (new human race) have much to ponder also. Following their parent's economic, industrial and technological transformation miracle, where next will they take Japan? What environmental policies and investment in green technology are they going to invest in to address global warming?
6. A new era of responsibility: perspective on fossil fuels management
“We will roll back the spectre of a warming planet” Barack Obama
As global citizens we have a responsibility to work towards sustainable development moreso in the age of globalisation, were we are constantly reminded of our interdependence with others. The actions of individuals or institutions in one part of the world can, and do, have significant consequences for people elsewhere.
"Responsibility does not only lie with the leaders of our countries or with those who have been appointed or elected to do a particular job. It lies with each of us individually …” The Dalai Lama
Coal is one of the fossil fuels that produce methane and carbon. The production, transportation and processing of coal is a major component in the economic development of Zimbabwe. The Hwange thermal power station produces 920 Mega Watts (Zhakata, 2004:12) of electricity, which powers homes and industry in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe also exports some of her power to neighbouring countries. Again, coal is used to cure tobacco in farms, to power steam locomotives and for heating and cooking.
Reduction in coal production must be gradual and replaced by alternative green friendly sources of energy, chief among them hydroelectric power. There is also need to decentralise energy infrastructure and this requires a new emphasis on development and regeneration of our cities.
7. The Land reform programme versus land-use conservation
The land reform programme in Zimbabwe has brought with it a number of challenges that are related to global warming. Most of the newly resettled farmers are poor and therefore cannot afford to draw electricity to their homes. Therefore, they use wood to fuel all farm and domestic related processes. This has set in motion desertification and thus increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which leads to global warming.
Youth led and focused initiatives in Zimbabwe, must ensure that the general populace in Zimbabwe receives critical information on how to use coal and coal by-products in an environmentally friendly manner. Youth capacity building in this case shall form the core and basis of this intervention strategy. Youths who have graduated from high school and tertiary institutions can volunteer their time and work in urban and rural communities raising awareness on environment issues. Education and awareness programmes are a cost effective way of addressing global warming at local level.
"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world." Nelson Mandela
In addition young people must actively engage in afforestation activities in their respective institutions of learning and communities. Newly resettled farmers must be encouraged to invest and use alternative environmentally friendly sources of energy such as solar power.
Solid waste management in the city of Bulawayo presents a cumbersome challenge in relation to climate change. Due to the failure by the local authority to regularly collect solid waste management from domestic households, undesignated landfills are being created around formal human settlements in the city. There are no proper solid waste management systems at these undesignated landfills and residents burn the solid waste. This has the effect of increasing the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.
It is against this backdrop that I propose the following method to deal with solid waste. Young people in the city can organise door-to-door campaigns encouraging residents to reuse and recycle potential waste. In addition to this some of the domestic solid waste can be turned into artifacts, this shall provide means for economic sustenance for unemployed youths.
Local authorities can improve efficiency in the disposal and recycling of solid waste by privatising solid waste management. The city of New Delhi, India has privatised solid waste management with excellent results.
8. The future: Opportunities for forging and strengthening global ties in tackling climate change
“Twixt the optimist and pessimist. The difference is droll: the optimist sees the doughnut, but the pessimist sees the hole.” McLandburgh Wilson
We sometimes emphasise the danger in a crisis without focusing on opportunities. We must feel a great sense of urgency because climate change is the most dangerous crisis we have ever faced. However, it also provides us with opportunities to do a lot of things we ought to be doing for other reasons. In order to solve this crisis we can develop a shared sense of moral purpose.
Zimbabwe’s industrial capacity is currently diminished and this provides a good opportunity to plan ahead for the future. There are some greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring which include byproducts of foam production, refrigeration and air conditioning called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), as well as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) generated by industrial processes.
(http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/climate/index.htm)
Eventually, when Zimbabwe and the rest of the less industrialised world does fully industrialise we need to have developed alternatives to the use of the above-mentioned gases. Young people in tertiary institutions in Zimbabwe must engage in scientific and social research of green technology options to power industries. Research and development of alternative sources of green energy must pre-occupy the best of our youth minds in tertiary institutions. At my university they are a number of student clubs and societies drawn from different faculties. These clubs work towards tackling social, economic, technological, environmental and political challenges that affect contemporary Zimbabwe and the world.
Industrialisation is the backbone of most developed economies; therefore in the stages towards attaining economic growth, self-sufficiency and mass consumption, Zimbabwe shall embrace industrialisation. It is estimated that by 2030 there will be more cars in use in the developing world than the developed world. Therefore developing countries must enact legislation and engage in technological renewal and transformation to guard against greenhouse gases emissions. Energy efficient cars must be developed in addition to establishing a reliable and energy efficient public transportation system. An excellent public transport system shall form the basis of encouraging public transport over private transport.
9. Popular youth culture, media and arts as non-formal pedagogical techniques aimed at raising awareness and calling for the reversal of climate change
“Art [and dramaturgy are] not a mirror held up to reality, but a hammer with which to shape it [and chart a better future].” Anon
Climate change themes should start to be embraced and produced in drama, poetry, music, film, debate, prose, public speaking, sculptures, paintings and other aspects of popular culture in the same way some of the great challenges that have beset the world have been addressed through the media and arts.
Climate change in Zimbabwe must be treated with urgency as other pressing issues affecting the nation-state such as malaria, tuberculosis, governance, human rights, HIV and Aids. Issues highlighted above are being addressed using various media and art forms. Bulawayo is teeming with a number of arts groups. The majority of practitioners in the arts industry in Zimbabwe are youths. It is against this backdrop that I believe that arts and media have a greater role in raising awareness, educating and encouraging community participation in solving climate change.
As a media and arts practitioner I envisage the development of lines, themes and specific scripts of popular radio and television productions such as movies, soap operas and dramas written on, depicting and about climate change.
10. The need to explore effects of climate change on marine life and our waters
As an extension, it is imperative to look and study changes in the aquatic environment across the globe. Climate change has the potential to affect marine life; their individual and collective assemblage. Due to climate change it is possible that we might have marine life migrating to new habitats. This will affect fishing industries and livelihoods dependent on our waters. In Zimbabwe, communities close to the mighty Zambezi river may fall victim if such a situation would occur as it would affect livelihoods and means to economic sustenance.
Understanding such processes is an aim for current and future work and will give insights into the responses of communities to global climate change. Case studies of particular environments further stress such, for instance, coral reefs, Atlantic fishing grounds, the pacific coast of South America and coastlines (Graves and Reaves, 1996).
Young Zimbabweans with an interest in marine biology should extend their research scope to include research on potential effects of climate change on marine life and suggest possible mitigatory and preventive intervention strategies.
Conclusion
Regardless of what part of the world you live in, it is quite likely you have noticed, or have been directly affected by some unusual weather patterns in recent years. In 1998 alone, for example, eighty separate natural catastrophes were recorded in different parts of the world. Climate change effects range from educational, social, health, information and communications infrastructural destruction; public health; tropical diseases driven by high temperatures and rainfall such as dengue fever are reported to be moving into high altitude areas. It extends to national and international security concerns, threat to human life and denial of basic human rights.
It is against this background that youth across the world need to harness their collective energies and talents and come up with practical ideas in combating climate change. The role of young people in the developed and developing world is to actively engage socio-green entrepreneurship and continuously lobby their respective governments to enact legislation that regulates carbon emissions and to call industry to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Resolutions of the Earth summit and provisions of the Kyoto protocol must guide policy on carbon emissions reduction. The world needs to reduce further carbon emissions than what is stipulated under the Kyoto protocol. This is our responsibility today for a better tomorrow. Global youth citizens are the vanguard of sustainable development.
References
http://www.ceepa.co.za/docs/POLICY%20NOTE%2011.pdf
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/apr/21/food.unitednations
http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/climate/index.htm
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/edc/AspectsCitizenship/CitizenshipSustainableDevelopment_en.asp#TopOfPage
Sunday Times- South African Edition. 28 December 2008, p15
Barack Hussein Obama. President of the United States of America. inauguration speech. 20 January 2009. Capitol Hill. Washington D.C
C. H. Matarira et al .2005. Zimbabwe: Climate Change Impacts on Maize Production and Adaptive Measures for the Agricultural Sector (research report)
Zhakata. W (ed) .2004. Climate Change Mitigation Studies In Zimbabwe. Harare: Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe- Ministry of Environment and Tourism, p12
Graves J and Reaves D .1996. Global Environment Change: Plants, Animals and Communities. Essex: Longman Group Ltd
Giddens, A .2004. Sociology: 4th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Friday, May 15, 2009
Media and Youth in Africa
The Uganda Broadcasting Corporation (UBC) is the sole national public broadcaster in Uganda. As a public broadcaster UBC has to compete with private broadcasters in the market. At times political economy influences the quality of programming on the national broadcaster, in order to make the national broadcaster competitive in the market. Even with a statutory requirement which makes it mandatory for any practicing journalist to at least hold a degree, the quality of journalists at UBC is still heavily compromised since it relies on young and inexperienced graduates. Experienced journalists serve private broadcasters such as Wavah Broadcasting Corporation Service (WBS) and foreign broadcasters such as Cable News Network (CNN) and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The use of analogue broadcasting equipment has meant that UBC is unable to reach the whole country and it is unable to broadcast its programmes over the internet. UBC TV has also entered into a partnership with South African based DSTV that has seen the Corporation obtain a channel on its Cable Network. As a result UBC TV can now be viewed on the national service DSTV Channel 107.
Uganda Television and Radio Uganda the current Uganda Broadcasting Corporation was born in 1963 one year after Uganda’s independence. Its main aim was to broadcast through both mediums to the whole country. After independence till the mid 1980’s Uganda was faced with a lot of economic hardships. As a result many institutions including the national broadcaster suffered a general deterioration. It is with this background that the Ugandan Government saw the need to restructure the former Uganda Television and Radio Uganda. As a result Parliament passed the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation Act (2004) that established the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation in 2005. This transformed the former UTV and Radio Uganda into the now existent Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. The Corporation started its activities on the 16th of November 2005. UBC operates UBC TV channel and five radio stations.
The main aims of the Corporation are to develop the former Radio Uganda and UTV into a public national broadcasting center of excellence, for the purpose of providing electronic media and consultancy services that educate and guide the public. It also aims at achieving and sustaining comprehensive national radio and television coverage. UBC still remains 100% owned by the Government although not 100% financed by it. The Corporation realizes its income from the sale of TV and Radio airtime and rental of its technical facilities.
Since the formation of the UBC, which saw the merger of Radio Uganda and Uganda Televison, there have been significant strides made in interms of media coverage. Today, UBC’s coverage through it’s TV and Radio almost covers the whole of Uganda.
UBC TV has also entered into a partnership with South African based DSTV that has seen the Corporation obtain a channel on it’s Cable Network. As a result UBC TV can now be viewed on the national service DSTV Channel 107. This ensures that UBC is able to broadcast to wider world audience.
The Corporation has also gone into partnership with the US based Internet TV Station Jump TV, that shall ensure that UBC TV’s local programmes will be aired live over the internet for those UBC TV viewers who are in the Diaspora and those who are multi media compliant. The move ensures that cultural products from Uganda are now being exported to international audiences. As a national broadcaster, UBC ensures that the cultural values, and dominant ideologies related to Ugandan identity are purveyed to world audiences.
The Chinese Government recently extended a grant to UBC TV that shall see the setting up of a second Television Channel and a radio channel in Jinja. This is a positive development for national broadcaster with a single station. The multiplicity of stations shall ensure that there shall be no clogging of television programmes on a single station. The disadvantage of having different programme genres, such as sport, current affairs, film and kids programmes makes it difficult for all subjects to be adequately covered within the constraints of time.
UBC Radio on the other hand is one of the few remaining radio’s still broadcasting via medium and short wave. These systems still ensure that UBC can be received through Internet connection. The Japanese Government has been kind enough to grant UBC Radio a Medium Wave Technical Grant that shall see the improvement of these waves by making them stronger and clearer.
The fact that UBC is still using analogue systems of broadcasting has meant that the quality of its media products has largely remained poor and it cannot broadcast to the whole of Uganda. The use of analogue systems of broadcasting has also meant that UBC cannot broadcast on its own, its programmes on the internet. It relies on US based Internet TV Station Jump TV for the relay of its programmes on to the internet. This means that the broadcasting independence of UBC is severely compromised as Jump TV can only broadcast only those programmes that it deems fit and worth broadcasting. Khamalwa (2008) argues that this arrangement has seen the continued cultural domination of western ideologies and culture on the international public sphere since only programmes that potray the supremacy of western culture are aired by Jump TV.
Like any other public broadcaster in the world, UBC is also trapped within the limitations of the theory that expounds on the formation and role of the public broadcaster. McQuail (2005:180) contends that a public broadcaster should be independent from the government. UBC is not independent from the government. According to Human Rights Watch (2006) in the 2006 presidential elections the opposition, Forum for Democratic Change (FDC) and its presidential candidate Dr Kiiza Besigye received 6,4percent coverage as compared to 62.4percent for the ruling NRM party. This is despite the fact that the constitution of the republic of Uganda clearly stipulates that;
“No candidate shall be denied reasonable access, and use of the state owned communication media.” section 67, clause 2 (Constitution of the republic of Uganda, 1995)
“all presidential candidates shall be given equal time and space on the state owned media to present their programmes to the people.” Section 67, clause 3(Constitution of the republic of Uganda, 1995)
However critics argue that UBC-TV and UBC radio are independent since they are run by the independent state-funded Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. In repudiating this claim one can therefore argue that, in line with classical Marxism thinking (Williams, 2003), instrumentalism is in play in the governance and operations of UBC-TV and UBC-radio. The government as the funder of the national public broadcaster uses it as an instrument to purvey ideas of the ruling elite and is behind media content and production processes at Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. The coverage of the 2006 Uganda presidential election bears testimony to this fact. A comparison of the operations of UBC-TV and UBC-radio can be made to the operations of Botswana Television (BTV) and the operations of ZBC-TV and ZBC-Radio services which operate under Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings, a parastatal. The direct control of UBC by the government is made more succinctly clear by a direct order by President Yoweri Museveni, for the public broadcaster to stop levying licence fees. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Broadcasting_Corporation)
The press and journalists act of 2005, stipulates that for one to practice as a journalist they need to hold a bachelors degree. As a result of this act most journalists at UBC are young and inexperienced. This tends to affect the quality of programming. Most veteran journalists tend to leave UBC once they garner enough experience to work for international networks such as Cable News Network (CNN) and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). It can thus be argued that as much as it is necessary to have journalists holding an academic qualification in order to practice. The requirement for one to hold a university degree is an entry barrier to the profession. Laitila (1995) identifies six principles that are necessary for one to serve as a journalist. Laitila’s six principles are based on the role of a journalist in the society and the responsibility and obligation of a journalist to society. Of particular note, are the following principles which are universal; responsibility in forming public opinion and standards of gathering and presenting information. For a journalist to master these principles certainly they need formal education, but not necessarily a university degree.
The inability to collect enough revenue by UBC to finance its operations has resulted in foreign governments and firms availing funds to UBC in the form of grants. It can thus be argued that as much as foreign investors are necessary for purposes of investing in the media industry in the third world to ensure an improvement in the quality of programming and the transformation of the media industry to meet the demands of an ever digitalizing world their influence and degree of involvement still remains a contentious issue.
“[the media can act as a] crucial informal means by which the values and structures of neo-colonialism are accepted. If colonialism is a form of imperialism-that is direct control of one nation by another-neo colonialism is cultural imperialism, with the media one of the vehicles for the transfer of western [and eastern] values and attitudes…the cultural or media imperialism thesis claims that western [and eastern values] conflict with local cultures… [hence] threaten national and cultural identity [which are supposed to be portrayed by the public broadcaster].”Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana in Williams (2003:217)
The failure by UBC to raise enough finances has also resulted in challenges interms of remunerating its employees with market competitive salaries. Most experienced journalist leave their employment with UBC to join private stations and foreign media organizations.
In conclusion it can thus be argued that the failure to draw clear parallels between the independence of UBC from government control has led to the politicization of the bourgeois public sphere. This concept is intricately twinned to the commercialization of media content and citizen participation. It is against this background that Chibita (2006) in her evaluation and critical analysis of the role of UBC in fulfilling its role as a public broadcaster asserts that UBC played a critical role in the evolution of the public sphere at its inception and invariably has played a key role in the collapse of the national media public sphere in Uganda.
b) How does the institution compare with its western counterpart?
There are clear disparities between public service broadcasting in Africa and the west. The differences can be traced from the history of the public service broadcasting concept between the two contexts (developed world and the global south), management structure, influence and control by advertisers and the state, financing and audience reach. The role of a public broadcaster in Africa and the developed world is different. This essay will compare the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation (UBC) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). The basis of comparison between the two media institution rests on the fact that, both institutions were established in a colonial set-up. Uganda gained her independence in 1963 and underwent socio-economic and political metamorphosis; on the other hand Australia is a settler republic which has undergone political transformation, where the ruling elite still fight to maintain their hegemony in the face of resistance from the original Aborigine community. Therefore in such a context, what is the role of a public broadcaster and to balance and satisfy the needs of the ruling class and the dichotomous interests of the Aborigines?
ABC was founded in 1929 as the Australian Broadcasting Company, it was subsequently nationalised and made a state owned corporation on 1 July 1932, the Australian Broadcasting Commision. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 changed the name of the organisation to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, effective 1 July 1983 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation). The establishment of ABC can be equated to that of UBC after the independence of Uganda. Uganda TV and Radio Uganda which were separate entities since the colonial era where merged to form the UBC in 2005.
ABC has a budget of AUD$840 million annually, the corporation provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional Australia, as well as overseas through the Australia Network and Radio Australia. ABC is 100percent funded by the government. UBC is controlled by the government but it is not 100 percent financed by government. In the case of ABC it means that advertisers cannot determine the content and production processes of ABC since it is financed through tax payers’ money. On the other hand, UBC can succumb to the wishes and aspirations of the advertiser since it relies on funds from advertisers. In is along this wise that one can therefore argue that public service broadcasters in the developed world have greater autonomy as compared to their counterparts in the developing world. Therefore public service broadcasters can cover news from a national view point without necessarily having to take the interests of the advertiser on board, that is to say national and public interest takes precedence over the profit interest.
ABC broadcasts nationally and internationally on its own accord. However, the same cannot be said about UBC. ABC broadcasts cover the whole of Australia, the Asia-Pacific region and the whole world. International coverage is carried out through Australia Network and Radio Australia. UBC on the other hand is still battling to broadcast to the whole of Uganda. With the world fast embracing the technological revolution, ABC broadcasts can be accessed on the internet. UBC is still to broadcast on the internet. At the moment, UBC internet radio broadcasts are being carried out by a television station based in the United States of America, Jump TV. UBC cannot broadcast internationally because its equipment is old. UBC uses analogue equipment, while ABC is using digital broadcast equipment. The use of digital broadcast equipment by ABC has enabled it to exploit digital broadcasting through beaming some of its programmes on New Information and Communications Technology (NICTs) devices such as mobile phones.
In the public interest, in 1995 ABC launched a television channel dedicated to the broadcast of parliamentary sessions. The television station is called Parliamentary network and news. On the other hand UBC operates a single television and channel, however recently it has secured a grant from the Chinese government to establish a second television station. The multiplicity of television channels on the ABC network ensures that issues there is an indepth coverage and analysis of current affairs without the constraints of time, as will be the case in the context of a single station which has to cover competing programme genres.
In 2001, ABC commenced digital television. In readiness, ABC had fully digitised its production, post-production and transmission facilities - heralded at the time as 'the greatest advance in television technology since the introduction of colour'. At the same time, the ABC's Multimedia division was renamed 'ABC New Media', becoming an output division of the ABC alongside Television and Radio. Legislation allowed the ABC to provide 'multichannels' - additional, digital-only, television services managed by the New Media division. Soon after the introduction of digital television in 2001, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel launched, showing a mix of programming aimed at teenagers and children. In 2002, the ABC launched ABC Asia Pacific - the replacement for the defunct Australia Television channel operated previously by the Seven Network. Much like its predecessor, and companion radio network Radio Australia, the service provided a mix of programming targeted at audiences throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Funding cuts in 2003 led to the closure of Fly and the ABC Kid's Channel. In contrast, UBC is still enmeshed in age old analogue broadcasting systems.
The ABC has been accused of bias by both sides of politics. On the other hand UBC has been accused only by the opposition of bias. Conservative Liberal Party governments in the 1960s and 1970s attempted to influence the Corporation's political coverage by threatening to reduce funding for its news and current affairs division. Similarly the opposition in Uganda has long called for the reformation of the public service broadcaster, opposition leader Besigye has threatened to overhaul UBC once in power.
A 2004 Roy Morgan media credibility survey found that twenty-five percent of Australian journalists viewed the ABC as Australia's most partisan media outlet, second only to News Limited. At the same time, the poll found that ABC Radio was seen as the most accurate news source in the country. A number of former journalists and presenters at ABC have moved from positions at the corporation to politics. Similarly, in a survey carried by Uganda Journalists Safety Committee, it was the assertion of this body of journalists that UBC is biased towards the ruling NRM party.
The ABC operates 46 local radio stations, in addition to four national networks and international service Radio Australia. In addition, DiG Radio launched on digital platforms in 2002, currently offers three separate stations. ABC Local Radio is the Corporation's flagship radio station in each broadcast area. There are 46 individual stations, each with a similar format consisting of locally presented light entertainment, news, talk back, music, sport and interviews, in addition to some national programming. Contrastingly, UBC has only 5 radio stations.
An experimental Multimedia Unit was established in 1995, charged with developing policy for the ABC's work in web publishing. This unit continued until 2000, when the New Media division was formed, bringing together the ABC's online output as a division similar to Television or Radio. The division had over a million pages of material published by late 2003. In 2001 the New Media division became New Media and Digital Services, reflecting the broader remit to develop content for digital platforms such as digital television. In addition to ABC Online, the division also had responsibility over the ABC's two digital television services, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel, until their closure in 2003. In March 2005 the division oversaw the launch of ABC2, a free-to-air digital television channel, in effect a replacement for ABC Kids and Fly.
In conjunction with the ABC's radio division, New Media and Digital Services implemented the ABC's first podcasts in December 2004. By mid-2006 the ABC had become an international leader in podcasting with over fifty podcast programs delivering hundreds of thousands of downloads per week. In February 2007, the New Media & Digital Services division was dissolved and divided up amongst other areas of the ABC. It was replaced by a new Innovations area, to manage ABC Online and investigate new technologies for the ABC. However, UBC is yet to fully exploit broadcast opportunities offered by the information superhighway.
In conclusion it can thus be argued that there are clear differences between UBC and ABC on the technological front and interms of budgets and sources of finance. The degree of government control at both public service broadcasters is a complex issue. Critics of both media institutions argue that they are by enlarge controlled by the government. However, what is certain is that the degree of government control is varied, at UBC there is direct government control but at ABC government control is indirect. In essence ABC riding on a high budget and technological supremacy has ceased to be a national broadcaster only, it has transcended on to the international public sphere to become an international broadcaster.
c) What do you think of the future of Africa’s media development?
Media development in Africa rests on a subtle and fragile surface. Contentious issues and the lack of willpower amongst the contemporary governments in Africa has slowed down the development of media. Apart from South Africa, and other few southern Africa nations such as Zambia and Namibia there has been a general tendency to stifle the development of the media industry throughout Africa. Governments in Africa have come up with various pieces of legislation that inhibit the growth of the media industry in Africa. Technical development in the media industry is one other factor that has negatively affected the growth of the media industry. The unavailability of finances to finance the set-up and the expansion of media projects has also ensured that media development in Africa remains retarded. However, there are new opportunities that are offered by the information superhighway (internet) for the development and growth of the media industry. There is also debate around the potential of alternative media in the form of community media ventures.
The current status with regards to media diversity on the African continent is adequately captured by Professor Guy Berger (2004:156), who asserts that Africa as a continent remains “media thin, rather than dense.” It can thus be argued that this situation is a direct result of the direct willpower of national governments to promote media diversity, by blocking investment in the field. Chiweshe et al (2003) contends that the promulgation of the Broadcasting Services Act (BAZ), Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) and the Public Order and Security Act (POSA) by the government of Zimbabwe was a direct strategy aimed at retarding media diversity and stifling journalistic practice. unstable political systems throughout Africa further re-inforce this unfortunate situation, for example Uganda has promulgated laws such as the Press and Journalist Act (2005) which places barriers of entry into the journalism professional to would be media practitioners. The Political Organisations Act (2004) has contains inimical provisions that hinder freedom of journalistic expression and exercise.
Media training in Africa still lags behind. There are few journalism and media studies training institutions in Africa. To further compound the situation, in the field of technical training for would be media practitioners, most of the training institutions lack the requisite media equipment for training. For a world that is fast globalizing and embracing NICTs media practitioners need to be adequately trained so that they are able to meet the demands of a digitalizing media industry. Lack of adequate and comprehensive training has resulted in poor quality productions. There is need for Africa to invest in the establishment of media training institutions which are equipped with the requisite modern equipment. In order to produce high quality graduates the human resources skills, interms of lecturers, facilitators and other technical people must not only be qualified but experienced.
The unavailability of finances to finance the establishment of new media organizations or expand the existing ones has meant that media industry remains retarded in Africa. There is need for private investment in the sector to improve the diversity and pluralism of the media industry in Africa. Most media organizations in Africa, apart from South Africa and those found in the Maghreb region (Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco) are failing to generate enough revenue to sustain their operations and to remunerate journalists with salaries commensurate with any other noble profession.
The media in Africa has been widely touted as being used by the wealthy and ruling elite to purvey their ideas to audiences. It has also been accused of sidelining national and public interest in preference of commercial interests. It is against this backdrop that one can therefore argue that media development of Africa shall be hinged on community media. Community media is flourishing across Africa, and it is claimed it appeals to local communities and regions, and thus addressing their developmental needs and aspirations.
The internet provides a vast uncontested space for media development in Africa. Nyabuga (2004) notes that the number of internet users on the continent is steadily rising. It is this opportunity that Africa can seize and use for the development of the media industry on the continent. The internet offers African media organizations to transmit African issues to world audiences. A new concept, citizen journalism has emerged with the internet. Citizen journalism circumvents the legislative barriers put in place interms of laws governing the practice of journalism. The internet provides a global public sphere that can be used in the practice of journalism. In line with liberal-pluralism ideas internet news sites present an unregulated public sphere where truths and lies compete, an ideal market place of ideas.
In conclusion, it can thus be argued that although there are a number of challenges that beset media development in Africa, there are also opportunities for its development. The onus for the development of the media industry lies in the political willpower of contemporary and future leaders to further liberalise the media environment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chibita, M. B (2006) “Indigenous Language Programming and Citizen Participation in Ugandan Broadcasting: An Exploratory Study” (Doctorate Thesis)
2. Chiweshe et al (2003) Human Rights and the Media A handbook, Harare, SAHRIT
3. Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (2005) Kampala:Government of the Republic of Uganda
4. Khamalwa, W. J (2008) “Uganda Country Report Context” African Media Development Initiative. London: BBC
5. Laitila, T. (1995) “ Journalistic codes of ethics in Europe”, European Journal of Communication,10 (4)
6. McQuail D (2005) McQuail Mass Communication Theory, London: Sage Publications
7. Nyabuga G in Sonja Verwey, Journal Of Communication Science In Southern Africa- Communicare 23(1)-July 2004, Durban: University of Kwazulu Natal
8. Williams K (2003) Understanding Media Theory, London:Arnold Publishers
ONLINE SOURCES
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Broadcasting_Corporation (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
3. Berger, G. http://www.journ.ru.ac.za/staff/guy
4. http://www.ubc.com/home (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
5. http://www.pressreference.com/Sw-Ur/Uganda.html (accessed 24 March 2009)
Uganda Television and Radio Uganda the current Uganda Broadcasting Corporation was born in 1963 one year after Uganda’s independence. Its main aim was to broadcast through both mediums to the whole country. After independence till the mid 1980’s Uganda was faced with a lot of economic hardships. As a result many institutions including the national broadcaster suffered a general deterioration. It is with this background that the Ugandan Government saw the need to restructure the former Uganda Television and Radio Uganda. As a result Parliament passed the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation Act (2004) that established the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation in 2005. This transformed the former UTV and Radio Uganda into the now existent Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. The Corporation started its activities on the 16th of November 2005. UBC operates UBC TV channel and five radio stations.
The main aims of the Corporation are to develop the former Radio Uganda and UTV into a public national broadcasting center of excellence, for the purpose of providing electronic media and consultancy services that educate and guide the public. It also aims at achieving and sustaining comprehensive national radio and television coverage. UBC still remains 100% owned by the Government although not 100% financed by it. The Corporation realizes its income from the sale of TV and Radio airtime and rental of its technical facilities.
Since the formation of the UBC, which saw the merger of Radio Uganda and Uganda Televison, there have been significant strides made in interms of media coverage. Today, UBC’s coverage through it’s TV and Radio almost covers the whole of Uganda.
UBC TV has also entered into a partnership with South African based DSTV that has seen the Corporation obtain a channel on it’s Cable Network. As a result UBC TV can now be viewed on the national service DSTV Channel 107. This ensures that UBC is able to broadcast to wider world audience.
The Corporation has also gone into partnership with the US based Internet TV Station Jump TV, that shall ensure that UBC TV’s local programmes will be aired live over the internet for those UBC TV viewers who are in the Diaspora and those who are multi media compliant. The move ensures that cultural products from Uganda are now being exported to international audiences. As a national broadcaster, UBC ensures that the cultural values, and dominant ideologies related to Ugandan identity are purveyed to world audiences.
The Chinese Government recently extended a grant to UBC TV that shall see the setting up of a second Television Channel and a radio channel in Jinja. This is a positive development for national broadcaster with a single station. The multiplicity of stations shall ensure that there shall be no clogging of television programmes on a single station. The disadvantage of having different programme genres, such as sport, current affairs, film and kids programmes makes it difficult for all subjects to be adequately covered within the constraints of time.
UBC Radio on the other hand is one of the few remaining radio’s still broadcasting via medium and short wave. These systems still ensure that UBC can be received through Internet connection. The Japanese Government has been kind enough to grant UBC Radio a Medium Wave Technical Grant that shall see the improvement of these waves by making them stronger and clearer.
The fact that UBC is still using analogue systems of broadcasting has meant that the quality of its media products has largely remained poor and it cannot broadcast to the whole of Uganda. The use of analogue systems of broadcasting has also meant that UBC cannot broadcast on its own, its programmes on the internet. It relies on US based Internet TV Station Jump TV for the relay of its programmes on to the internet. This means that the broadcasting independence of UBC is severely compromised as Jump TV can only broadcast only those programmes that it deems fit and worth broadcasting. Khamalwa (2008) argues that this arrangement has seen the continued cultural domination of western ideologies and culture on the international public sphere since only programmes that potray the supremacy of western culture are aired by Jump TV.
Like any other public broadcaster in the world, UBC is also trapped within the limitations of the theory that expounds on the formation and role of the public broadcaster. McQuail (2005:180) contends that a public broadcaster should be independent from the government. UBC is not independent from the government. According to Human Rights Watch (2006) in the 2006 presidential elections the opposition, Forum for Democratic Change (FDC) and its presidential candidate Dr Kiiza Besigye received 6,4percent coverage as compared to 62.4percent for the ruling NRM party. This is despite the fact that the constitution of the republic of Uganda clearly stipulates that;
“No candidate shall be denied reasonable access, and use of the state owned communication media.” section 67, clause 2 (Constitution of the republic of Uganda, 1995)
“all presidential candidates shall be given equal time and space on the state owned media to present their programmes to the people.” Section 67, clause 3(Constitution of the republic of Uganda, 1995)
However critics argue that UBC-TV and UBC radio are independent since they are run by the independent state-funded Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. In repudiating this claim one can therefore argue that, in line with classical Marxism thinking (Williams, 2003), instrumentalism is in play in the governance and operations of UBC-TV and UBC-radio. The government as the funder of the national public broadcaster uses it as an instrument to purvey ideas of the ruling elite and is behind media content and production processes at Uganda Broadcasting Corporation. The coverage of the 2006 Uganda presidential election bears testimony to this fact. A comparison of the operations of UBC-TV and UBC-radio can be made to the operations of Botswana Television (BTV) and the operations of ZBC-TV and ZBC-Radio services which operate under Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings, a parastatal. The direct control of UBC by the government is made more succinctly clear by a direct order by President Yoweri Museveni, for the public broadcaster to stop levying licence fees. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Broadcasting_Corporation)
The press and journalists act of 2005, stipulates that for one to practice as a journalist they need to hold a bachelors degree. As a result of this act most journalists at UBC are young and inexperienced. This tends to affect the quality of programming. Most veteran journalists tend to leave UBC once they garner enough experience to work for international networks such as Cable News Network (CNN) and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). It can thus be argued that as much as it is necessary to have journalists holding an academic qualification in order to practice. The requirement for one to hold a university degree is an entry barrier to the profession. Laitila (1995) identifies six principles that are necessary for one to serve as a journalist. Laitila’s six principles are based on the role of a journalist in the society and the responsibility and obligation of a journalist to society. Of particular note, are the following principles which are universal; responsibility in forming public opinion and standards of gathering and presenting information. For a journalist to master these principles certainly they need formal education, but not necessarily a university degree.
The inability to collect enough revenue by UBC to finance its operations has resulted in foreign governments and firms availing funds to UBC in the form of grants. It can thus be argued that as much as foreign investors are necessary for purposes of investing in the media industry in the third world to ensure an improvement in the quality of programming and the transformation of the media industry to meet the demands of an ever digitalizing world their influence and degree of involvement still remains a contentious issue.
“[the media can act as a] crucial informal means by which the values and structures of neo-colonialism are accepted. If colonialism is a form of imperialism-that is direct control of one nation by another-neo colonialism is cultural imperialism, with the media one of the vehicles for the transfer of western [and eastern] values and attitudes…the cultural or media imperialism thesis claims that western [and eastern values] conflict with local cultures… [hence] threaten national and cultural identity [which are supposed to be portrayed by the public broadcaster].”Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana in Williams (2003:217)
The failure by UBC to raise enough finances has also resulted in challenges interms of remunerating its employees with market competitive salaries. Most experienced journalist leave their employment with UBC to join private stations and foreign media organizations.
In conclusion it can thus be argued that the failure to draw clear parallels between the independence of UBC from government control has led to the politicization of the bourgeois public sphere. This concept is intricately twinned to the commercialization of media content and citizen participation. It is against this background that Chibita (2006) in her evaluation and critical analysis of the role of UBC in fulfilling its role as a public broadcaster asserts that UBC played a critical role in the evolution of the public sphere at its inception and invariably has played a key role in the collapse of the national media public sphere in Uganda.
b) How does the institution compare with its western counterpart?
There are clear disparities between public service broadcasting in Africa and the west. The differences can be traced from the history of the public service broadcasting concept between the two contexts (developed world and the global south), management structure, influence and control by advertisers and the state, financing and audience reach. The role of a public broadcaster in Africa and the developed world is different. This essay will compare the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation (UBC) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). The basis of comparison between the two media institution rests on the fact that, both institutions were established in a colonial set-up. Uganda gained her independence in 1963 and underwent socio-economic and political metamorphosis; on the other hand Australia is a settler republic which has undergone political transformation, where the ruling elite still fight to maintain their hegemony in the face of resistance from the original Aborigine community. Therefore in such a context, what is the role of a public broadcaster and to balance and satisfy the needs of the ruling class and the dichotomous interests of the Aborigines?
ABC was founded in 1929 as the Australian Broadcasting Company, it was subsequently nationalised and made a state owned corporation on 1 July 1932, the Australian Broadcasting Commision. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 changed the name of the organisation to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, effective 1 July 1983 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation). The establishment of ABC can be equated to that of UBC after the independence of Uganda. Uganda TV and Radio Uganda which were separate entities since the colonial era where merged to form the UBC in 2005.
ABC has a budget of AUD$840 million annually, the corporation provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional Australia, as well as overseas through the Australia Network and Radio Australia. ABC is 100percent funded by the government. UBC is controlled by the government but it is not 100 percent financed by government. In the case of ABC it means that advertisers cannot determine the content and production processes of ABC since it is financed through tax payers’ money. On the other hand, UBC can succumb to the wishes and aspirations of the advertiser since it relies on funds from advertisers. In is along this wise that one can therefore argue that public service broadcasters in the developed world have greater autonomy as compared to their counterparts in the developing world. Therefore public service broadcasters can cover news from a national view point without necessarily having to take the interests of the advertiser on board, that is to say national and public interest takes precedence over the profit interest.
ABC broadcasts nationally and internationally on its own accord. However, the same cannot be said about UBC. ABC broadcasts cover the whole of Australia, the Asia-Pacific region and the whole world. International coverage is carried out through Australia Network and Radio Australia. UBC on the other hand is still battling to broadcast to the whole of Uganda. With the world fast embracing the technological revolution, ABC broadcasts can be accessed on the internet. UBC is still to broadcast on the internet. At the moment, UBC internet radio broadcasts are being carried out by a television station based in the United States of America, Jump TV. UBC cannot broadcast internationally because its equipment is old. UBC uses analogue equipment, while ABC is using digital broadcast equipment. The use of digital broadcast equipment by ABC has enabled it to exploit digital broadcasting through beaming some of its programmes on New Information and Communications Technology (NICTs) devices such as mobile phones.
In the public interest, in 1995 ABC launched a television channel dedicated to the broadcast of parliamentary sessions. The television station is called Parliamentary network and news. On the other hand UBC operates a single television and channel, however recently it has secured a grant from the Chinese government to establish a second television station. The multiplicity of television channels on the ABC network ensures that issues there is an indepth coverage and analysis of current affairs without the constraints of time, as will be the case in the context of a single station which has to cover competing programme genres.
In 2001, ABC commenced digital television. In readiness, ABC had fully digitised its production, post-production and transmission facilities - heralded at the time as 'the greatest advance in television technology since the introduction of colour'. At the same time, the ABC's Multimedia division was renamed 'ABC New Media', becoming an output division of the ABC alongside Television and Radio. Legislation allowed the ABC to provide 'multichannels' - additional, digital-only, television services managed by the New Media division. Soon after the introduction of digital television in 2001, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel launched, showing a mix of programming aimed at teenagers and children. In 2002, the ABC launched ABC Asia Pacific - the replacement for the defunct Australia Television channel operated previously by the Seven Network. Much like its predecessor, and companion radio network Radio Australia, the service provided a mix of programming targeted at audiences throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Funding cuts in 2003 led to the closure of Fly and the ABC Kid's Channel. In contrast, UBC is still enmeshed in age old analogue broadcasting systems.
The ABC has been accused of bias by both sides of politics. On the other hand UBC has been accused only by the opposition of bias. Conservative Liberal Party governments in the 1960s and 1970s attempted to influence the Corporation's political coverage by threatening to reduce funding for its news and current affairs division. Similarly the opposition in Uganda has long called for the reformation of the public service broadcaster, opposition leader Besigye has threatened to overhaul UBC once in power.
A 2004 Roy Morgan media credibility survey found that twenty-five percent of Australian journalists viewed the ABC as Australia's most partisan media outlet, second only to News Limited. At the same time, the poll found that ABC Radio was seen as the most accurate news source in the country. A number of former journalists and presenters at ABC have moved from positions at the corporation to politics. Similarly, in a survey carried by Uganda Journalists Safety Committee, it was the assertion of this body of journalists that UBC is biased towards the ruling NRM party.
The ABC operates 46 local radio stations, in addition to four national networks and international service Radio Australia. In addition, DiG Radio launched on digital platforms in 2002, currently offers three separate stations. ABC Local Radio is the Corporation's flagship radio station in each broadcast area. There are 46 individual stations, each with a similar format consisting of locally presented light entertainment, news, talk back, music, sport and interviews, in addition to some national programming. Contrastingly, UBC has only 5 radio stations.
An experimental Multimedia Unit was established in 1995, charged with developing policy for the ABC's work in web publishing. This unit continued until 2000, when the New Media division was formed, bringing together the ABC's online output as a division similar to Television or Radio. The division had over a million pages of material published by late 2003. In 2001 the New Media division became New Media and Digital Services, reflecting the broader remit to develop content for digital platforms such as digital television. In addition to ABC Online, the division also had responsibility over the ABC's two digital television services, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel, until their closure in 2003. In March 2005 the division oversaw the launch of ABC2, a free-to-air digital television channel, in effect a replacement for ABC Kids and Fly.
In conjunction with the ABC's radio division, New Media and Digital Services implemented the ABC's first podcasts in December 2004. By mid-2006 the ABC had become an international leader in podcasting with over fifty podcast programs delivering hundreds of thousands of downloads per week. In February 2007, the New Media & Digital Services division was dissolved and divided up amongst other areas of the ABC. It was replaced by a new Innovations area, to manage ABC Online and investigate new technologies for the ABC. However, UBC is yet to fully exploit broadcast opportunities offered by the information superhighway.
In conclusion it can thus be argued that there are clear differences between UBC and ABC on the technological front and interms of budgets and sources of finance. The degree of government control at both public service broadcasters is a complex issue. Critics of both media institutions argue that they are by enlarge controlled by the government. However, what is certain is that the degree of government control is varied, at UBC there is direct government control but at ABC government control is indirect. In essence ABC riding on a high budget and technological supremacy has ceased to be a national broadcaster only, it has transcended on to the international public sphere to become an international broadcaster.
c) What do you think of the future of Africa’s media development?
Media development in Africa rests on a subtle and fragile surface. Contentious issues and the lack of willpower amongst the contemporary governments in Africa has slowed down the development of media. Apart from South Africa, and other few southern Africa nations such as Zambia and Namibia there has been a general tendency to stifle the development of the media industry throughout Africa. Governments in Africa have come up with various pieces of legislation that inhibit the growth of the media industry in Africa. Technical development in the media industry is one other factor that has negatively affected the growth of the media industry. The unavailability of finances to finance the set-up and the expansion of media projects has also ensured that media development in Africa remains retarded. However, there are new opportunities that are offered by the information superhighway (internet) for the development and growth of the media industry. There is also debate around the potential of alternative media in the form of community media ventures.
The current status with regards to media diversity on the African continent is adequately captured by Professor Guy Berger (2004:156), who asserts that Africa as a continent remains “media thin, rather than dense.” It can thus be argued that this situation is a direct result of the direct willpower of national governments to promote media diversity, by blocking investment in the field. Chiweshe et al (2003) contends that the promulgation of the Broadcasting Services Act (BAZ), Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) and the Public Order and Security Act (POSA) by the government of Zimbabwe was a direct strategy aimed at retarding media diversity and stifling journalistic practice. unstable political systems throughout Africa further re-inforce this unfortunate situation, for example Uganda has promulgated laws such as the Press and Journalist Act (2005) which places barriers of entry into the journalism professional to would be media practitioners. The Political Organisations Act (2004) has contains inimical provisions that hinder freedom of journalistic expression and exercise.
Media training in Africa still lags behind. There are few journalism and media studies training institutions in Africa. To further compound the situation, in the field of technical training for would be media practitioners, most of the training institutions lack the requisite media equipment for training. For a world that is fast globalizing and embracing NICTs media practitioners need to be adequately trained so that they are able to meet the demands of a digitalizing media industry. Lack of adequate and comprehensive training has resulted in poor quality productions. There is need for Africa to invest in the establishment of media training institutions which are equipped with the requisite modern equipment. In order to produce high quality graduates the human resources skills, interms of lecturers, facilitators and other technical people must not only be qualified but experienced.
The unavailability of finances to finance the establishment of new media organizations or expand the existing ones has meant that media industry remains retarded in Africa. There is need for private investment in the sector to improve the diversity and pluralism of the media industry in Africa. Most media organizations in Africa, apart from South Africa and those found in the Maghreb region (Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco) are failing to generate enough revenue to sustain their operations and to remunerate journalists with salaries commensurate with any other noble profession.
The media in Africa has been widely touted as being used by the wealthy and ruling elite to purvey their ideas to audiences. It has also been accused of sidelining national and public interest in preference of commercial interests. It is against this backdrop that one can therefore argue that media development of Africa shall be hinged on community media. Community media is flourishing across Africa, and it is claimed it appeals to local communities and regions, and thus addressing their developmental needs and aspirations.
The internet provides a vast uncontested space for media development in Africa. Nyabuga (2004) notes that the number of internet users on the continent is steadily rising. It is this opportunity that Africa can seize and use for the development of the media industry on the continent. The internet offers African media organizations to transmit African issues to world audiences. A new concept, citizen journalism has emerged with the internet. Citizen journalism circumvents the legislative barriers put in place interms of laws governing the practice of journalism. The internet provides a global public sphere that can be used in the practice of journalism. In line with liberal-pluralism ideas internet news sites present an unregulated public sphere where truths and lies compete, an ideal market place of ideas.
In conclusion, it can thus be argued that although there are a number of challenges that beset media development in Africa, there are also opportunities for its development. The onus for the development of the media industry lies in the political willpower of contemporary and future leaders to further liberalise the media environment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chibita, M. B (2006) “Indigenous Language Programming and Citizen Participation in Ugandan Broadcasting: An Exploratory Study” (Doctorate Thesis)
2. Chiweshe et al (2003) Human Rights and the Media A handbook, Harare, SAHRIT
3. Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (2005) Kampala:Government of the Republic of Uganda
4. Khamalwa, W. J (2008) “Uganda Country Report Context” African Media Development Initiative. London: BBC
5. Laitila, T. (1995) “ Journalistic codes of ethics in Europe”, European Journal of Communication,10 (4)
6. McQuail D (2005) McQuail Mass Communication Theory, London: Sage Publications
7. Nyabuga G in Sonja Verwey, Journal Of Communication Science In Southern Africa- Communicare 23(1)-July 2004, Durban: University of Kwazulu Natal
8. Williams K (2003) Understanding Media Theory, London:Arnold Publishers
ONLINE SOURCES
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Broadcasting_Corporation (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
3. Berger, G. http://www.journ.ru.ac.za/staff/guy
4. http://www.ubc.com/home (Accessed on 22 March 2009)
5. http://www.pressreference.com/Sw-Ur/Uganda.html (accessed 24 March 2009)
Nust students suspended over demonstrations
Ten students from the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) have been suspended pending disciplinary hearings following a demonstration that took place at NUST on the 16th of April.
The ten are, Kurai Hoyi, the President of the Nust Students Representative Council (SRC), Samson Nxumalo, the Secretary General, Vivid Gwede, Mukai Chisumo, Christopher Hwacha, Tawanda Saiti, Fortune Karimanzira, Degray Ziramba, Michael Zimamba and Taurai Chimwanza.
Eight of the ten suspended students are also facing criminal charges arising from university and private property damaged during the demonstrations.
Students were demonstrating over the decision by the university to bar students who had not paid full tuition fees from writing examinations. Tuition fees are currently ranging between US$415 and US$515 per semester. Scores of students who failed to raise the required tuition fees were forced to defer their studies.
Students are complaining that the fees are too high and their guardians, parents and sponsors cannot afford them. Civil servants are earning a socialist allowance of US$100 a month.
“The university administration has failed us,” said Vivid Gwede, former Nust SRC secretary general. “The decision to raise tuition fees to astronomical levels will result in the majority of students dropping out of university. This is sad, considering that most of the students at Nust are from peasant backgrounds and education is the only means to self-emancipation.”
The decision by the university to bar students who had not paid tuition fees to write their examinations is a contradiction to government pronouncements by the minister of higher and tertiary education, Stan Mudenge, that no student will be sent away because of failure to raise tuition fees. Mudenge and the new coalition government have kept quite as such developments are occurring.
The ten are, Kurai Hoyi, the President of the Nust Students Representative Council (SRC), Samson Nxumalo, the Secretary General, Vivid Gwede, Mukai Chisumo, Christopher Hwacha, Tawanda Saiti, Fortune Karimanzira, Degray Ziramba, Michael Zimamba and Taurai Chimwanza.
Eight of the ten suspended students are also facing criminal charges arising from university and private property damaged during the demonstrations.
Students were demonstrating over the decision by the university to bar students who had not paid full tuition fees from writing examinations. Tuition fees are currently ranging between US$415 and US$515 per semester. Scores of students who failed to raise the required tuition fees were forced to defer their studies.
Students are complaining that the fees are too high and their guardians, parents and sponsors cannot afford them. Civil servants are earning a socialist allowance of US$100 a month.
“The university administration has failed us,” said Vivid Gwede, former Nust SRC secretary general. “The decision to raise tuition fees to astronomical levels will result in the majority of students dropping out of university. This is sad, considering that most of the students at Nust are from peasant backgrounds and education is the only means to self-emancipation.”
The decision by the university to bar students who had not paid tuition fees to write their examinations is a contradiction to government pronouncements by the minister of higher and tertiary education, Stan Mudenge, that no student will be sent away because of failure to raise tuition fees. Mudenge and the new coalition government have kept quite as such developments are occurring.
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